Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities (EJPAU) founded by all Polish Agriculture Universities presents original papers and review articles relevant to all aspects of agricultural sciences. It is target for persons working both in science and industry,regulatory agencies or teaching in agricultural sector. Covered by IFIS Publishing (Food Science and Technology Abstracts), ELSEVIER Science - Food Science and Technology Program, CAS USA (Chemical Abstracts), CABI Publishing UK and ALPSP (Association of Learned and Professional Society Publisher - full membership). Presented in the Master List of Thomson ISI.
2018
Volume 21
Issue 3
Topic:
Environmental Development
ELECTRONIC
JOURNAL OF
POLISH
AGRICULTURAL
UNIVERSITIES
Wysocka-Czubaszek A. , Czubaszek R. , Roj-Rojewski S. 2018. VARIABILITY OF SOIL PROPERTIES ON ERODED HILLSLOPES IN ROLLING OLD GLACIAL LANDSCAPE
DOI:10.30825/5.ejpau.77.2018.21.3, EJPAU 21(3), #02.
Available Online: http://www.ejpau.media.pl/volume21/issue3/art-02.html

VARIABILITY OF SOIL PROPERTIES ON ERODED HILLSLOPES IN ROLLING OLD GLACIAL LANDSCAPE
DOI:10.30825/5.EJPAU.77.2018.21.3

Agnieszka Wysocka-Czubaszek, Robert Czubaszek, S豉womir Roj-Rojewski
Department of Agri-Food Engineering and Environmental Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bia造stok University of Technology, Poland

 

ABSTRACT

In undulating landscapes, soils redistribution mainly results from erosional processes. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the morphological changes and properties of soils located in various slope positions in the old glacial landscape of north-eastern Poland. Soil samples were taken from 5 profiles along transect of a topo-sequence containing hummock summit, slope, the footslope, the toeslope and the slope of another hummock and were analyzed for basic soil properties. Study revealed spatial redistribution of soils in undulating and thus complex old glacial landscape within one crop field. Soil located on a summit is Haplic Luvisol but the soil on the shoulder of the south-facing slope is classified as Haplic Regosol and its profile structure, the lowest content of nitrogen and carbon suggests the complete truncation of the soil profile by erosion. The confirmation of this process is the location of the Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) on the top of the buried Cambisol and Luvisol on the toeslope and footslope.

Key words: carbon, nitrogen, cation exchange capacity.

INTRODUCTION

Erosion is the most important factor in redistribution of soils and in development of morphological changes within agricultural fields and landscapes leading to surface denudation on hillslope convexities and accumulation on concave landscape positions [10, 38, 42, 44]. Both erosion and deposition change the morphological features of soils developed in the upper slope position and in the footslope and toeslope. In the upper slope positions, effects of erosion result in partial or complete profile truncation of soil profile by removing soil horizon or horizons, while in the lower parts of the slope and in the hollows, the original soil profile becomes buried under deposits coming from upslope, which form colluvial soils [15, 38, 42, 43]. Moreover, soil redistribution results in a severe modification of the landscape topography as well as of the surface and subsurface hydrology (e.g., the variability of infiltration and overland flow paths), causing substantial modification of geomorphic processes [10]. Segregation of the eroded material results in the formation of sandy colluvial deposits within the field, while clay and silt are transported beyond its borders [37]. Both tillage and water erosion cause profile transformations and physicochemical changes in eroded soils located on the slopes and in the colluvial soils developed in the toeslopes [21, 35, 51, 52]. Most studies on water and tillage erosion and their impact on soil morphology and physicochemical properties were carried out on very susceptible soils [33, 47] on steep slopes [59] under conventional tillage [12, 54]. Less is known about the old glacial areas which are considered as not very sensitive to erosion due to gentle slopes and soils rather resistant to runoff [49]. However, observations of soil translocation after rainfalls or spring thawing and the colluvial soils found on the toeslopes [51] and in the bottoms of dry valleys [4] are the evidence of erosional processes occurring in the rolling old glacial areas. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the morphological changes as well as chemical and physical properties of soils located in various slope positions in the old glacial landscape.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area
The study area is the field (52o48’17”N, 23o12’51”E, 6.22 ha) in an organic farm near the village of the Hryniewicze Duże, belonging to the Bielsk Plain in eastern Poland (Fig. 1). The site has undulating topography with small hills associated with the recession of the Warta glaciation [20]. This area is characterized by the temperate climate with continental influences, with an average annual temperature of 6.8°C (for period of 1961–1995) and an average annual precipitation of 598 mm (for period 1961–1995), with peaks in June, July and August. Thunderstorms occur on about 25 days a year, mainly during the summer from May to September with highest frequency in August [16]. The rainfall erosivity index calculated for the north-eastern Poland ranges between 50.6 and 57.9 MJ ha-1 cm-1 h-1 yr-1 [3]. According to analysis of Wawer et al. [49] based on Polish method for Actual Water Erosion Risk (AWER) assessment [18] the Bielsk Plain is under risk of weak erosion. Soil loss calculated according to Universal Soil Loss Equation for the region ranged from 1 to 5 Mg ha-1 yr-1 depending on slope length and angle and on soil erodibility [53]. The dominant land uses of the region are crop fields (44%), meadows and pastures (27%), and forests (22%) [29]. Wheat, oat, maize and rye are the main crops [1]. Most croplands are located on the summits and slopes and extend to the footslopes and kettles in hummocky landscape, typical for the region.

Fig. 1. Location of study site

The studied transect had a length of 250 m and elevations of 137.5 to 142.5 m a.s.l. The field extended from the flat summit of the kame hummock through south-facing convex slope with average angle of 7.6%, the toeslope and north-facing uniform slope with average angle of 5.6% to the summit of next kame hummock (Fig. 2). This site is located in the area of kame hills, hummocks and terraces associated with kettles which were formed which originated during the ice sheet retreat of the Wartanian (Saalian) Glaciation [30]. The field has been cultivated for the last 10 years under organic farming principle and the triticale and potatoes were main crops. After the potato harvest, the land was ploughed along the slope gradient, which is typical tillage direction in this region.

Fig. 2. Location of soil profiles at the study area

Soil sampling and analysis
The study was conducted along a transect of a topo-sequence containing the hummock summit, slope, the toeslope and the slope of another hummock. In November 2014, in order to describe soil profiles and take soil samples along the transect 5 soil pits were excavated. Color of each soil horizon in each profile was determined according to Munsell Soil Color Chart [31]. Soil typology and symbols of soil horizons were determined after Polish Soil Classification (PSC 2011) [40] and the names of soils used in this paper were given according to Annex 1 in PSC 2011 [40] in which correlation between Polish soil units and WRB Classification was given. In each soil, pit profiles were described and in each profile disturbed soil samples of 1 kg mass were collected from every morphologic horizons to a depth of approximately 150 cm.  In total, 27 soil samples were taken.

Analysis of physicochemical properties of soil was performed using standard procedures. The soil moisture was determined by oven drying the samples at 105°C until they reached a constant mass. The air-dried soil samples were homogenized and fine fractions were separated with 2 mm sieve. Roots were removed before analytical analyses. Soil particle-size fractions were determined by the Bouyoucos method in modification by Casagrande and Prószyński [32]. Soil pH was measured in a mixture of soil and distilled water at the air-dried soil:water (w:v) ratio of 1:5 and in a 1M KCl solution (1:5 w:v air-dried soil:water ratio) with a pH meter HQD 40 (Hach, USA). Hydrolytic acidity (HA) was determined by Kappen method [32], base cations were extracted with 1M ammonium acetate. Magnesium and calcium were measured by flame AAS (Avanta PM, GBC Scientific Equipment Pty Ltd, Australia), and sodium and potassium were determined using flame photometry (BWB Technology, UK). The results were used to calculate the sum of base cations (SBC), cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation (BS). Total nitrogen (TN) was determined by the Kjeldahl method [14] with Vapodest 50s analyser (Gerhardt, Germany). Soil organic carbon (SOC) was measured with TOC-L analyzer with SSM-5000A Solid Sample Combustion Unit (Shimadzu, Japan). After nitric acid/hydrogen peroxide microwave digestion in ETHOS One (Milestone s.r.l., Italy) the content of total phosphorus was determined with ammonium metavanadate method using UV-1800 spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan).

RESULTS

The typology of studied soils varied depending on the landscape location. Soils located on a summit (profile 1) and on a shoulder of north-facing slope (profile 5) were identified as Haplic Luvisols. The depth of plough horizon (Ap) varied from 20 to 27 cm (Tab. 1). This horizon was underlain by luvic horizon (Et), and argic horizon (Bt) (Fig. 3). Soil situated slightly lower on the shoulder of the south-facing slope (profile 2) was classified as Haplic Regosol, poorly formed soil. Its plough horizon was grey, much lighter comparing to soil on the summit (profile 1). The plough horizon of Haplic Regosol was underlain by material which had not been subjected to the soil formation processes. The profile structure as well as chemical properties of soils located on the toeslope (profile 3) and the footslope (profile 4) indicated Haplic Cambisols (Eutric). Below the plough horizon (Ap) cambic horizon (Bw) was formed. Its depth in profile 3 reached up to 80 cm, while in the profile 4, Bw horizon extended to 50 cm. Below this horizon, the dark grey horizon appeared which was probably the humus horizon of soil buried by relocated deposits from the higher-lying areas during their cultivation. The arrangement of horizons of buried soil in profile 3 indicated that it had been also Cambisol in the past, while the sequence in profile 4 suggested buried Luvisol.

Table 1. Particle size distribution of soils
Horizons
Depth
[cm]
Color
(wet)
Percentage of fraction with particle diameter
[mm]
Percentage of total fraction with particle diameter
[mm]
2.0–0.1
0.1–0.05
0.05–0.02
0.02–0.005
0.005–0.002
<0.002
2–0.05
0.05–0.002
<0.002
Profile 1 Haplic Luvisol
Ap
0–20
10YR 5/4
31
24
32
8
3
2
55
43
2
Et
20–52
10YR 7/4
19
34
34
8
2
3
53
44
3
Bt
52–83
7.5YR 4/6
25
38
16
4
1
16
63
21
16
BC
  83–106
10YR 6/3
38
31
18
3
1
9
69
22
9
C
106–150
10YR 7/3
16
36
43
1
1
3
52
45
3
Profile 2 Haplic Regosol
Ap
0–23
10YR 5/4
13
39
35
7
2
4
52
44
4
AC
23–55
10YR 7/4
10
35
48
5
0
2
45
53
2
Cca
 55–150
10YR 7/3
9
43
45
1
1
1
52
47
1
Profile 3 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric)
Ap
0–25
7.5YR 4/4
17
25
38
12
3
5
42
53
5
AB
25–41
7.5YR 6/4
14
28
38
11
5
4
42
54
4
Bw
41–80
7.5YR 4/3
17
27
36
12
4
4
44
52
4
Ab
80–95
7.5YR 4/2
19
47
17
10
5
2
66
32
2
Bwb
  95–108
7.5YR 6/6
17
27
40
11
2
3
44
53
3
C
108–150
7.5YR 7/4
10
34
41
9
1
5
44
51
5
Profile 4 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric)
Ap
  0–27
10YR 4/4
22
27
37
10
2
2
49
49
2
Bw
27–50
10YR 4/6
24
27
34
  7
3
5
51
44
5
Ab
50–58
10YR 3/4
20
27
37
10
2
4
47
49
4
AEb
58–80
10YR 5/4
20
25
38
11
5
1
45
54
1
Etb
80–93
10YR 6/4
13
32
41
10
1
3
45
52
3
Btb
  93–110
7.5YR 5/6
8
25
44
  8
0
15
33
52
15
C
110–150
7.5YR 7/4
13
28
47
  7
0
5
41
54
5
Profile 5 Haplic Luvisol
Ap
  0–27
10YR 5/4
18
29
42
10
1
0
47
53
0
AE
27–37
10YR 6/6
19
27
33
12
1
8
46
46
8
Et
37–46
10YR 7/3
25
25
35
7
1
7
50
43
7
Bt
  46–81
7.5YR 4/6
20
30
30
6
1
13
50
37
13
BC
 81–110
10YR 6/3
7
33
49
7
0
4
40
56
4
C
110–150
10YR 6/4
9
30
51
5
1
4
39
57
4

Fig. 3. Morphological structure of soils

All studied soils had similar textural classes, and in most cases had developed from deposits, in which fractions of sand and silt had dominated (Tab. 1). The content of clay fraction was small and only in the cambic horizons of the Haplic Luvisols exceeded 10%. The contents of sand and silt were similar and were about 40–50%. Only minor differences in the relationship between these fractions caused developing different textural classes. The Haplic Luvisol (profile 1) on the summit was sandy loam, the Haplic Luvisol (profile 5) on the upper part of the north-facing slope was loam in plough horizon, silt loam underneath and sandy loam in the Bt horizon and parent material. The Haplic Regosol (profile 2) was characterized by a silt loam texture. The Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) located on the footslope and toeslope were silty loam (profile 3) and sandy loam (profile 4). In soil profile 4, the buried original Luvisol was characterized by silty loam texture underlain by loam and sandy loam, while buried Cambisol in profile 3 was characterized by sandy loam in buried plough horizon and silty loam underneath.

Soil pHKCl in plough horizons ranged from 5.3 to 7.5. In soils located in the upper parts of both slopes, the pHKCl of entire profiles was lower than in profiles located in the lower parts of both slopes. Only in Haplic Regosol, the pHKCl ranged from 7.5 in Ap horizon to 8.0 in C horizon, which can indicate the profile truncation.

Calcium dominated in the sum of base cations. The Haplic Luvisols on the summit (profile 1) and on the north-facing slope (profile 5) were characterized by the lowest Ca2+ content (Tab. 2). In both soils, the Ca2+ content was the lowest in luvic horizon (Et) and increased in argric horizon (Bt). The highest content of calcium (15.12–27.82 cmol(+) kg-1) was observed in Haplic Regosol (profile 2) on the slope shoulder. Only in this profile the CaCO3 was found and its content in A horizon was equal to 10% and in underlaying horizons increased to 13%. Quite rich in calcium (12.77 cmol(+) kg-1 in Ap horizon and 17.64 cmol(+) kg-1 in AB horizon) were the upper horizons of Haplic Cambisol (Eutric) (profile 3) on the toeslope. In the Haplic Cambisol (Eutric) (profile 4) located on the footslope, the Ca2+ concentration in upper part of profile was much lower (6.96 cmol(+) kg-1) and decreased with depth to 2.47 cmol(+) kg-1 in parent material with accumulation (11.25 cmol(+) kg-1) pronounced in buried argic horizon of original soil. Magnesium content followed the similar pattern but its content was much lower and ranged from 0.66 cmol(+) kg-1 to 1.38 cmol(+) kg-1 in plough horizon and dropped down to 0.23–0.66 cmol(+) kg-1 in parent material (Tab. 2). Content of potassium ranged from 0.36 cmol(+) kg-1 to 0.62 cmol(+) kg-1 in Ap horizon and decreased with depth to 0.05–0.07 cmol(+) kg-1 in C horizon. Amount of sodium varied in plough horizon from 0.05 cmol(+) kg-1 to 0.13 cmol(+) kg-1 and slightly decreased to 0.03–0.12 cmol(+) kg-1 in parent material (Tab. 2). Higher hydrolytic acidity corresponded with a low amount of Ca2+.

Table 2. Base cations, sum of base cations (SBC), hydrolytic acidity (HA), cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation (BS) of soils
Horizon
Base cations
SBC
HA
CEC
BS
Ca2+
Mg2+
K+
Na+
cmol(+) kg-1
%
Profile 1 Haplic Luvisol
Ap
4.84
0.99
0.36
0.05
6.25
1.73
7.98
78.32
Et
1.25
0.33
0.13
0.04
1.75
0.64
2.39
73.22
Bt
5.74
0.86
0.21
0.23
7.04
1.31
8.35
84.31
BC
3.74
1.02
0.12
0.05
4.93
1.54
6.47
76.20
C
2.33
0.45
0.07
0.04
2.89
0.49
3.38
85.50
Profile 2 Haplic Regosol
Ap
20.23
0.82
0.41
0.12
28.47
1.24
29.71
95.83
AC
15.12
0.36
0.15
0.12
23.66
0.79
24.45
96.77
Cca
27.82
0.23
0.07
0.12
18.76
0.41
19.17
97.86
Profile 3 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric)
Ap
12.77
1.38
0.55
0.13
14.83
1.11
15.94
93.04
AB
17.64
1.09
0.31
0.27
19.30
0.96
20.26
95.26
Bw
6.38
1.19
0.12
0.18
7.86
0.99
8.85
88.81
Ab
5.48
0.56
0.07
0.11
6.22
1.58
7.80
79.74
Bwb
3.50
0.46
0.04
0.05
4.06
1.78
5.84
69.52
C
2.77
0.26
0.05
0.05
3.12
0.75
3.87
80.62
Profile 4 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric)
Ap
6.96
0.72
0.62
0.09
8.40
2.59
10.99
76.43
Bw
4.10
0.72
0.19
0.03
5.04
2.01
7.05
71.49
Ab
4.20
0.69
0.07
0.04
5.00
2.18
7.18
69.64
AEb
3.54
0.40
0.04
0.04
4.02
1.91
5.93
67.79
Etb
1.69
0.33
0.04
0.04
2.10
1.14
3.24
64.81
Btb
11.25
1.45
0.21
0.17
13.07
1.89
14.96
87.37
C
2.47
0.66
0.06
0.04
3.22
0.81
4.03
79.90
Profile 5 Haplic Luvisol
Ap
3.89
0.66
0.58
0.04
5.17
3.21
8.38
61.69
AE
3.94
0.23
0.27
0.03
4.47
3.02
7.49
59.68
Et
2.47
0.16
0.16
0.03
2.82
1.39
4.21
66.98
Bt
4.38
0.72
0.22
0.07
5.40
2.10
7.50
72.00
BC
4.22
1.05
0.05
0.05
5.38
1.65
7.03
76.53
C
2.22
0.49
0.05
0.03
2.80
0.79
3.59
77.99

The content of total nitrogen in all soils decreased with the depth. In the Haplic Luvisol (profile 1) located on the summit, the TN content ranged from 0.89 g kg-1 in topsoil to 0.12 g kg-1 in the parent material. Similar vertical distribution of total N was observed in the Haplic Luvisol (profile 5) located in the upper part of the north-facing slope. The TN content in the Haplic Regosol (profile 2) was lower and ranged from 0.74 g kg-1 in Ap horizon to 0.07 g kg-1 in parent material (Tab. 3). The total nitrogen content of the Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) was much higher in the Ap horizon and was equal to 1.38 g kg-1 in the profile 3 and 1.02 g kg-1 in profile 4.

Table 3. Chemical properties of soils located in various locations
Horizons
pHH2O
pHKCl
Total N
[g kg-1]
Soil organic C
[g kg-1]
C/N
Total P
[g kg-1]
Profile 1 Haplic Luvisol
Ap
7.1
6.3
0.89
8.5
10
0.44
Et
7.4
6.2
0.22
2.0
9
0.22
Bt
7.5
6.1
0.19
1.3
7
0.43
BC
7.5
6.0
0.17
0.7
4
0.37
C
7.7
6.1
0.12
0.3
3
0.37
Profile 2 Haplic Regosol
Ap
8.0
7.5
0.74
7.9
11
0.57
AC
8.5
8.0
0.09
0.8
9
0.48
Cca
8.5
8.0
0.07
0.3
4
0.50
Profile 3 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric)
Ap
7.8
7.3
1.38
14.0
10
0.83
AB
8.2
7.6
0.62
4.8
8
0.55
Bw
8.0
7.1
0.49
3.7
8
0.54
Ab
7.9
7.0
0.48
5.2
11
0.54
Bwb
8.0
7.0
0.28
1.7
6
0.42
C
8.5
6.8
0.14
0.6
4
0.26
Profile 4 Haplic Cambisol (Eutric)
Ap
6.9
5.9
1.02
9.9
10
0.60
Bw
7.0
5.8
0.45
3.9
9
0.52
Ab
7.2
6.1
0.46
6.0
13
0.56
AEb
6.8
6.1
0.30
2.7
9
0.56
Etb
7.5
6.1
0.15
1.3
9
0.35
Btb
7.6
6.0
0.20
1.8
9
0.59
C
7.7
6.1
0.08
0.2
3
0.39
Profile 5 Haplic Luvisol
Ap
6.6
5.3
0.87
8.5
10
0.57
AE
6.6
5.1
0.31
0.5
2
0.56
Et
7.0
5.6
0.14
0.4
3
0.33
Bt
7.0
5.3
0.16
1.3
8
0.53
BC
7.1
5.5
0.09
0.5
6
0.48
C
7.1
5.4
0.09
0.2
2
0.42

The carbon content in the studied soils was related to their location in the landscape. The plough horizon of the Haplic Luvisol (profile 1) on the summit had soil organic carbon content of 8.5 g kg-1, which decreased in underlain horizons to 0.3 g kg-1 (Tab. 3). In the Haplic Luvisol (profile 5) on the north-facing slope, the SOC content was similar (8.5 g kg-1) in plough horizon and decreased to 0.2 g kg-1 in C horizon. The lowest SOC content (7.9 g kg-1) in Ap horizon was observed in the Haplic Regosol (profile 2) on the slope shoulder. Much higher SOC content was found in the soil located on the toeslope. In plough horizon of the Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) (profile 3), the soil organic carbon content was equal to 14.0 g kg-1 and decreased through the profile to 3.7 g kg-1 in the illuvial horizon, while it increased in the buried A horizon to the content of 5.2 g kg-1. In the soil located on the footslope, the SOC content in Ap horizon was higher (9.9 g kg-1) than in soils on the higher positions and dropped to 3.9 g kg-1 in the Bw horizon to increase to 6.0 g kg-1 in the Ab horizon.  

The C/N ratio followed the pattern of SOC and TN distribution in soil profiles. The highest C/N ratio equal to 10 was found in plough horizons of all studied soils. This parameter decreased with depth of soil profile the Haplic Luvisol located on the summit (profile 1) and upper part of the north-facing slope (profile 2) as well as in the Haplic Regosol on the shoulder of south-facing slope (profile 2), while in the Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) located on toeslope and footslope C/N ratio increased in buried A horizons (Tab. 3).

In all studied soils, the content of total phosphorus generally decreased down the soil profile, from 0.44–0.83 g kg-1 in the Ap horizon to 0.26–0.50 g kg-1 in C horizon; however, in B horizons the total phosphorus increase to 0.43–0.54 g kg-1 was observed. The A and B horizons of buried soils were also characterized by higher total phosphorus content (Tab. 3). In soils located in on a footslope and toeslope, the content of total phosphorus in Ap horizons was the highest (0.60 g kg-1 and 0.83 g kg-1 in profiles 4 and 3, respectively).

DISCUSSION

Differentiation of the soil profile structure along the examined transect clearly indicates the presence of erosive forces on the studied field. The presence of the plough horizon, underlain directly by the parent material, not subjected to the soil forming processes in the profile 2 suggests the complete truncation of the soil profile by removing the surface horizons. The material from original subsurface genetic horizon was exposed at the surface and constituted the plough layer [10]. Similar findings were reported by Kaźmierowski [19] who observed truncation of soils developed on slopes in the undulating landscape of bottom moraine in western part of Poland. The confirmation of the erosion processes in the study area was also the presence of buried soils in the lower parts of the transect (in the footslope and toeslope positions) which indicates that the original soils were covered by deposits of material from the upslope, which constitutes the new plough layer [10]. Erosional processes in hummocky and hilly cultivated landscapes consist of water and tillage erosion which total rates as well as their ratio depends on topographic features of the area, soil erodibility and cultivation techniques [21, 25, 26, 28]. Tillage erosion may increase soil erodibility in sloping areas [48] and creates new pathways for runoff [36], increasing water erosion. In many areas, increased mechanization of agricultural practices caused shift from water-dominated to tillage-dominated erosion processes [45]. Tillage erosion leads to truncation of soils located on convex shoulders of slopes and to redistribution of removed material to foot- and toeslopes resulting in changes of soil morphological features and soil chemical properties [7].

The results of grain size analysis also provide the evidence for the erosion processes in the studied area. This especially applies to the south-facing slope where the proportion of 0.02–0.05 mm fraction and 0.005–0.02 mm fraction increased in plough horizon from upslope to downslope, while the coarser fractions, particularly 0.1–2 mm fraction, decreased in the same direction indicating a selective soil erosion. Similar preferential detachment and distribution of different fractions causing uneven redistribution of sediments on cultivated fields were reported by Ampontuah et al. [2].  A higher percentage of 0.02–0.05 mm fraction in Ap horizon in profile 3 than in Ab horizon can be also an evidence of this process. However, this pattern was not observed in soils on the north-facing slope. This may indicate the role of tillage in particle distribution on the studied slope. The comparably small effects of selective transport and deposition by water erosion in those sites, where erosion and deposition are dominated by tillage erosion were observed by Fiener et al. [13].

Position in the landscape and erosion influenced the CEC and amount of individual base cations which was also observed by Bieniek [6] in hummocky moraine landscape. The truncation of surface horizons on the convex slope shoulder uncovered material with high content of Ca2+, which was dragged down the slope and deposited on the footslope. This was not observed on the uniform north-facing slope.

Many previous studies [e.g. 34, 55] reported findings concerning the distribution of nitrogen in the areas of high soil accumulation resulting from erosion. While in the Haplic Luvisols (profiles 1 and 5) and the Haplic Regosol (profile 2), the TN content significantly decreased in the horizon underlying the topsoil, in the Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) (profile 3 and 7) the total N content decreased only in horizons underlying the plough horizon of the buried soil. According to Papiernik et al. [34] the accumulation of topsoil material transported via erosion to the deposition area results in relatively high total nitrogen content throughout the upper profile of soil developed on toeslope. Zhang et al. [58] reported high correlation between spatial distribution of N and erosion rates resulting the accumulation of N in soils developed in accumulation areas on cultivated long slopes.

One of the most important impacts of erosion on soil is redistribution of organic carbon, which may lead either to increased burying or deposition of the eroded SOC in depositional areas in terrestrial ecosystems or aquatic bodies [46], or may enhance the CO2 emission into the atmosphere [22]. Most researchers emphasize the strong relation of SOC concentrations to soil redistribution rates [27, 39]. However, Zhang et al. [57] observed that SOC depletion primarily resulted from SOC selective removal due to transportation of the most labile SOC fraction with water erosion, while tillage erosion transported SOC only on short distances and therefore had less effect on total SOC stock on the long slopes. Wiaux et al. [50] suggested that the organic carbon stored in colluvial soils is particularly vulnerable to mineralization under drier/warmer conditions, which under global warming may cause the release of organic carbon from these soils. Vertical distribution of soil organic carbon in soils located in various slope positions, observed in studied soils, was also reported by Jague et al. [17] who observed a slow decrease of SOC content along the depth in profiles located on the plateau and convex slopes and complex SOC pattern with decreasing and increasing trends on the concave position. The results of our study were similar to other studies [8, 24, 39, 45, 56, 57, 60] that had shown the reduction of SOC in the summit or upper slope position such as convex shoulder and its addition to the deposition areas. The increased SOC content in the Haplic Cambisols (Eutric) may be related not only to erosional transport of organic matter but also to the higher biomass productivity resulted from better moisture [23] and nutrients supply [9]. 

The results of our research also confirmed observations of Kosmas et al. [21], that soil erosion affected not only carbon and nitrogen distribution but also altered the spatial pattern of total phosphorus. The highest content of phosphorus, found in the plough horizons of soils located in the lower parts of the field under investigation indicates its movement with soils particles transported via erosion and its accumulation in the lowest part of the slope. Similar finding were reported by Zhang et al. [57] who observed complete depletion of P with disappearance of soils at summit with P increase in soils developed on toeslope.

This study revealed the importance of erosion processes in rolling landscapes with complex topography. The erosional and depositional parts of the field may differ significantly in physical and chemical properties and uncontrolled erosion will enhance those differences. Therefore conservation practices such as no- or reduced tillage, residue management, manure fertilization and cover cropping [41] should be implemented not only on areas with steep slopes but also on those with gentle ones. The no-tillage management enhances the content of organic C, total N and available K and increases CEC in plough horizon; however, this practices may decreases soil pH [11].  It must be also emphasized that uneven distribution of SOC, nutrients, CEC and water retention caused by erosion may result in high field variation of crops. Management practices targeting in an increase of in-field crop homogeneity such as precision agriculture or replacing blanket crop with toposequence-specific management will be beneficial for crops and will reduce the erosion [5, 9].

CONCLUSIONS

Studies on morphological and chemical properties of soils developed in various slope locations may be a useful tool in recognition of erosional process in undulating and thus complex old glacial landscape. Although the erosional processes were not directly measured or monitored, the study revealed spatial redistribution of soils within one crop field. Erosion led to soil truncation on the convex shoulder of the slope and material deposition on the toeslope influencing field’s carbon budget and nutrient distribution. Soils located in the upper parts of the slopes are depleted from nutrients and organic carbon. The burial of SOC below the plough horizon preserved some carbon and contributed to the reduction of CO2 emissions from agriculture but nutrient-rich soils located on the small areas within the field surrounded with poorer soils might be inefficiently used.

Acknowledgements 

This work was financially supported by Ministry of Science and Higher Education as a part of the project S/WBiIŚ/01/17.

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Accepted for print: 18.07.2018


Agnieszka Wysocka-Czubaszek
Department of Agri-Food Engineering and Environmental Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bia造stok University of Technology, Poland
ul. Wiejska 45A
15-351 Bia造stok
Poland
email: a.wysocka@pb.edu.pl

Robert Czubaszek
Department of Agri-Food Engineering and Environmental Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bia造stok University of Technology, Poland
ul. Wiejska 45A
15-351 Bia造stok
Poland
email: r.czubaszek@pb.edu.pl

S豉womir Roj-Rojewski
Department of Agri-Food Engineering and Environmental Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bia造stok University of Technology, Poland
ul. Wiejska 45A
15-351 Bia造stok
Poland
email: s.roj@pb.edu.pl

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