THE EFFECTS OF FISH OIL MICROCAPSULES ON QUALITY OF POTATO DISH

Zdzisław Domiszewski¹, Grzegorz Bienkiewicz¹, Alicja Tarnowiecka-Kuca², Sebastian Żywicki², Grzegorz Tokarczyk³, Wioletta Krawczyńska², Agnieszka Hrebień-Filisińska², Marta Rogalewska², Ewelina Synowiec¹, Agata Laskowska^1
1 Food Quality Department, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
² Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
³ Food Technology Department, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of adding microcapsules (3.75; 5.78, and 7.38%) on the quality of lipids of a potato dish, on the example of Silesian dumplings. Quality of lipids was determined by an analysis of the following factors: peroxide value (PV), anisidine value (AsV), TOTOX value, conjugated dienes (CD), acid value (AV), and fatty acid composition. The percentage of EPA and DHA in fish oil was 17,6%, whereas in dumplings it ranged from 12.5 to 14.6% depending on the version under analysis. The technological processing that was carried out during the research did not cause an increase in any of the quality parameters of microcapsule lipids. It was demonstrated that adding 3.75% of microcapsules does not substantially affect the sensation of fish and rancid smell and taste of Silesian noodles. Combining foods rich in complex carbohydrates and fish oil can significantly contribute to reducing EPA and DHA deficits in the diet. A 300 g portion of dumplings (with a 3.75% addition of microcapsules) served as the main course nearly meets the required daily intake of EPA and DHA of 500 mg.

Key words: microcapsules, fish oil, EPA & DHA, lipid oxidation.

INTRODUCTION

Essential fatty acids (EFA) play a special role in human nutrition. They are mainly linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) [75]. The human body does not have the enzymes responsible for formation of double bonds at the carbon atom positions above C9, so these acids must be provided with food. Currently, the EFA also include ALA metabolites: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). According to numerous epidemiological and clinical studies n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, EPA and DHA in particular, are beneficial in the treatment of many diseases, including cardiovascular, nervous, and immune system diseases. Although both EPA and DHA can be synthesized by elongation and denaturation of ALA in thr presence of Δ6-desaturase enzyme, this process however is very inefficient in the human body. The research conducted by Pawlowsky et al. [53] showed that only 0.2-2% of ALA present in flaxseed oil is converted to EPA in the body. The ongoing changes in human nutritional behaviour result in providing the body with excessive amounts of food rich in n-6 PUFA, in consequence upsetting the ratio of n-6 and n-3 PUFA (Simopoulos 2008). Failing to maintain a proper n-6/n-3 ratio of approximately 4-5:1 can promote development of cancer or inflammatory diseases [17,64]. Although LC n-3 PUFA are found in seafood, seaweed and algae, the main source of long chain (LC) n-3 PUFA are fatty fish [36]. Despite campaigns aimed at encouraging fish consumption in Poland, it remains at a low level of an average 14 kg per person. Consuming fish only once a week was observed for: children [52], adolescents [65], undergraduates [48], adults [15], elderly people [25], and pregnant women [69]. Because of the role that EPA and DHA play in the central nervous system and in the brain, deficiencies of these fatty acids may be particularly dangerous for children and pregnant and lactating women [45]. Therefere, the only way to increase consumption of LC n-3 PUFA is fortifying food, which means adding fish oils to it. It is believed that fortification of food products with LC n-3 PUFA is an innovative way to provide health benefits without introducing major changes in eating habits [24]. Food fortified with fish lipids is targeted mainly at people who do not consume these fats or consume it in very low amounts (this involves food and food supplements). The current daily safe limit of LC n-3 PUFA intake is set at approx. 5 g. Long-term supplemental intakes of EPA and DHA combined up to about 5 g/day do not appear to increase the risk of spontaneous bleeding episodes or bleeding complications, or affect glucose homeostasis immune function or lipid peroxidation, provided the oxidative stability of the n-3 LCPUFAs is guaranteed [20]. Despite the major technological problem of fortified food, which is securing its oxidative and sensory stability, it is the bioavailability of fatty acids in microcapsules that can be essential to accomplishing the main goal. Some of the processes of obtaining microcapsules may yield water-insoluble microparticles. Although this may be an advantage in terms of technology, bioavailability of microcapsules has been questioned on the grounds that they do not decompose easily in the digestive tract [6]. Despite this, numerous studies indicate that the bioavailability of fatty acids from microcapsules is, in principle, no different than that of gel capsules, and, after ingestion, the health objective is met [5,34,23]. The data showing that in 2007 in Europe there were 723 new fortified food products, compared to 291 in 2005 [67], attest to high interest in fortifying food with LC n-3 PUFA. Unfortunately, inadequate knowledge of nutritional matters in Poland effectively impedes the growth of health food market [41]. Due to the fact that shelf life of microcapsules, if stored under proper conditions, can be relatively long [2], fortifying food in mass catering facilities during preparation of meals can be an alternative to fortifying food products. Nutrient deficiencies in our diet can involve not only LC n-3 PUFA, but also carbohydrates, complex ones in particular. A recently published study shows that the amount of consumed carbohydrates in the following cases is too low to meet the recommended intake: lunch sets for undergraduates [16] overall diet of high school students [47] and overall diet of undergraduates [68]. Therefore, combining food rich in complex carbohydrates and LC n-3 PUFA may yield a valuable source of these nutrients, especially for children and adolescents. Food made from potato dough, such as gnocchi, dumplings or potato fingers, due to their low price, are often served in school and company canteens. The dough for Silesian dumplings is a version of potato dough that is made from boiled potatoes and potato flour. Although potato dough dishes are popular not only in Poland but also in the Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia, there is no information in the available literature on fortifying dishes made from this kind of dough. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of adding microcapsules (3.75; 5.78 and 7.38%) on the quality of lipids of a potato dish, on the example of Silesian dumplings, after storing it for 7 weeks. The authors were aware that the microcapsules may show elevated levels of lipid oxidation after storage. It was arranged on purpose, with the intention to verify whether microcapsules can be used without detriment to sensory qualities of the finished product despite high oxidation levels.

METHODS

The research was conducted on powder with added microcapsules and on Silesian dumplings with and without microcapsules.

Obtaining microcapsules. A mechanical homogeniser (Labor Pilot 2000 by IKA Werke GmbH, with a DR module) was used to prepare oil-in-water emulsion. Prior to preparing the emulsion, raw materials (demineralised water, cod liver oil, sorbitane mono oleate, polyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate emulsifiers, starch sodium octenyl succinate) and a mixture of maltodextrins with various glucose equivalent values (11.9 and 18.7) were combined using a mechanical mixer. The equipment for spray drying was Small Scale Spray Dryer MS150-1 (Anhydro, Denmark) with a 42000 rpm rotating disk and with Tin 180°C, Tout 87 ± 5°C and flow of 7.92 l/h.

Obtaining potato dough (dumplings). Potato dough was obtained by combining boiled potatoes, potato flour, eggs, and salt (1%). In order to obtain the right consistency of dough, which was unsuitable most likely due to low starch content in the potatoes, the amount of potato starch in the dough was increased. For the fortified dumplings, some of the cornstarch flour was replaced with microcapsules. The breakdown of respective ingredients of the potato dough is the following:

1. version I: boiled potatoes 67,36%; starch 27.99%; eggs 4,65%; microcapsules 0.00%
2. version II: boiled potatoes 66,27%; starch 25.96%; eggs 4,01%; microcapsules 3.76%
3. version III: boiled potatoes 68,25%; starch 22.21%; eggs 3,76%; microcapsules 5.78%
4. version IV: boiled potatoes 65,12%; starch 23.62%; eggs 3,88%; microcapsules 7.38%

Each version was prepared separately. After blending the ingredients and kneading the dough, a 1.5-2 cm thick roll was made and cut with a knife into pieces 1.5-2 cm long.  

Conditions of heat treatment. After forming, Silesian dumplings were put in salted boiling water (1% NaCl solution), with the ratio of dumplings to water: 1:15, boiling time: 5 min. Each version of dumplings was boiled separately. After boiling, the dumplings were rinsed with lukewarm water, cooled and fragmented.

Analytical methods. The same analytical methods were used for all versions of dumplings and powder with microcapsules. Moisture content was determined gravimetrically at 105°C for 6 h. Lipids were extracted with a chloroform:methanol mixture (1:2 v/v) according to Linko [44], extraction was performed twice. Lipid content was determined gravimetrically and expressed as g/100g wet weight. Quality of lipids was determined by an analysis of the following factors: peroxide value (PV), anisidine value (AsV), total oxidation value (TOTOX), conjugated dienes (CD), acid value (AV), along with an analysis of the composition of fatty acid (FA) via gas chromatography. PV of lipids were determined with the thiocyanate technique [54], based on oxidation of ferrous salt with hydroperoxides and the reaction of ferric salts with potassium isothiocyanate. The red ferric complexes formed were determined spectrophotometrically. PV expressed as meq O2/kg lipids. Anisidine value and total oxidation value (Totox) were determined according to the ISO [30], method 6885. Totox values were calculated from the relationship TOTOX = 2PV + AV. Acid value (AV) and conjugated dienes (CD) were determined according to the AOCS [1], methods Cd 3d-63 and Ti 1a-64 respectively.

Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) were prepared according to the AOCS [1], Ce 1b-89 method. GC analysis of FAME was carried out in a Agilent model 7890A instrument equipped with a split/splitless injector, MSD and a column, SPTM column: 2560, 100 x 0.25 mm ID, 0,20 ľm film, catalog number 24056. The initial temperature of the column was 145°C, injection port temperature 220°C, detector temperature 220°C, initial time 5 min, temperature increment 4°C/min, final temperature 220°C, and the total time of analysis 45 min. Carrier gas helium: constant flow rate of 1,2 cm³/min, split ratio 1:50. FA analysis parameters: SPTM column – 2560, 100 x 0.25 mm ID, 0,20 ľm film, catalog number 24056, carrier gas helium: constant flow rate of 1,2 cm³/min, split ratio 1:50, injector temperature 220°C; detector temperature 220°C; oven temperature: 140°C (5 min) increase to 240°C in 4°C/min., total time of analysis 45 min. Interpretation of chromatograms was made by comparing the retention times and the mass spectra of individual FAME of the examined sample with the retention times and mass spectra of the respective Sigma FAME standards (Lipid Standard). The results were recorded and processed using ChemStation (E.01.00) software.

Sensory analysis. For sensory evaluation of Silesian dumplings the Quantitative Description Analysis (QDA) method (sensory profiling) was used, with adherence to the analytical procedure described in ISO [31]. The evaluation was performed according to the previously established lists of parameters for: smell, texture and taste. A team of 7 people instructed in sensory profiling evaluated the characteristics of the analysed products. The temperature of the dumplings during sensory analysis was not lower than 63°C.

Texture profile analysis (TPA). The texture profile analysis (TPA) was performed using Texture Analyser TA-XT2/25® (Stable Micro Systems, UK). The device was controlled with Texture Expert for Windows® v. 1.22 software. Probe speed before the test was 2 mm s^-1. During and after the test it was 5 mm s^-1. A cylindrical probe with a diameter of 0.5'' (SMS P/0.5'') was used. The sample was deformed twice to 50% of its height. Test results were recorded as a force versus time graph. The following texture profile parameters were determined with the aid of a calculator tool (tpafrac.mac): hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, elasticity, gumminess and chewiness. The analysis was repeated 10 times.

Statistical analysis. Numbers presented in the tables and pictures are the mean values of three concurrent iterations. Statistical analysis was based on the one-way analysis of variance, homogeneous groups were formed according to the Duncan test for p < 0.05. The data were statistically analysed using STATISTICA (data analysis software system) by StatSoft, Inc. version 7.1.

RESULTS

The obtained microcapsule powder that was used to fortify Silesian dumplings contained 40.12% lipids (fish oil) (Table 1). The amount of the most valuable LC n-3 PUFA, that is EPA and DHA in 1 gram of lipids was 144,1 mg, which represented 17.6% of the total fatty acids (Table 2). The total amount of FA 1 g of lipids amounted to about 820 mg, which is typical for fatty fish lipids from (41). After adding microcapsules to the dumplings and carrying out technological processing, fat content in the finished product substantially increased, and ranged from 1.66 to 2.58 g/100 g depending on the additive (Table 1). Fat content in the dumplings was not proportional to the amount of microcapsules added. This was due to the fact that during kneading potato dough, the versions that contained greater amounts of microcapsules required an addition of starch in order to produce a substance with the consistency similar to that of version 0 (the version with no microcapsules). The presence of lipids in Silesian dumplings with no microcapsules was the result of adding eggs, whose yolks are rich in fat. These lipids revealed the presence of both n-6 and n-3 PUFA, including DHA, which is consistent with the literature [59]. As a result of the technological processing, a substantial decrease in fatty acid content in lipids was observed, mainly involving n-3 PUFA. Depending on the version, the amount of EPA and DHA in the lipids extracted from the dumplings was about 20-33% lower than in the microcapsules (Table 2). The decrease in the EPA and DHA content in lipids was inversely proportional to the amount of added microcapsule powder. It does not appear that the observed decrease in the EPA and DHA content in the dumplings can be attributed to a detrimental influence of temperature during heat treatment, as boiling the dumplings was carried out for only 15 minutes and the temperature at the geometric centre of the sample did not exceed 80°C. The research conducted by Domiszewski and Kołakowska [12] showed that heating a thin layer of fish lipids for 15 min at 100°C does not cause a loss of EPA and DHA. Additionally, the research by Larsen et al. [42] demonstrated that there a loss of EPA and DHA occurs during various methods of heat treatment. The decrease in the content of EPA and DHA in lipids that was observed during this research, can be attributed to the acids forming bonds with starch. Interactions between lipids occur spontaneously in tissues, and in products during processing and storage [55,62]. The research by Rocha et al. [56] showed that during production of bread, which is also rich in starch, changes in bond forms occur not only for various lipid fractions but also for fatty acids. Bienkiewicz and Kołakowska [7] also demonstrated, using model systems, that the composition of fatty acids, DHA in particular, in the extracted lipids, does not represent the complete composition of fish FA lipids in the presence of protein or starch. The observed decrease in the amount of some fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, not proportional to the amount of added microcapsules was probably due to poor distribution of egg yolks in potato dough. When showing the amount of the sum of EPA and DHA in absolute terms (mg/100g of product) it was found that 100 g of Silesian dumplings contains from 160,7 to 298,2 mg of these acids, depending on the amount of microcapsules added (Table 3). The portion of a meal made from potato dough and served as a main dish should be 300 g, and if served as a side dish – 200 g. Therefore, a single dish of Silesian dumplings at the lowest level of fortification is able to provide 482,1 and 321,4 mg of EPA and DHA respectively. The nutritional value of lipids is determined not only by the composition of fatty acids but also depends on their ratio [63]. Imbalance in the ratio of n-6 and n-3 acids (which should be about 3-5:1) can contribute to the development of cancer and the development of various kinds of inflammation [17]. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in lipids of all analyzed versions of dumplings was typical for products made from fatty fish and averaged 0.4 (Table 2). The greatest problem with fortified food is its oxidation stability. Oxidation products does not only reduce health safety of food but also affect its sensory qualities [60]. The literature shows that the rate of oxidation of fish oil and other types of fat in microcapsules depends on both temperature and time of storage [73] and also on their PUFA content, including their ratio of DHA to EPA [2]. The amount of primary oxidation products, represented by peroxide value (PV), in the microcapsules was relatively high and amounted to 56.55 meq0 2/kg lipids (Table 1). Whereas the amount of secondary oxidation products – anisidine value (AsV) was 8.67 and did not exceed acceptable levels. According to the Global Organization for EPA and DHA the maximum AsV for fish oils is 20 [27]. High peroxide content in the microcapsules was undoubtedly the effect of storing them for nearly 7 weeks. Immediately after spray drying PV did not exceed 7 meq02/kg lipids. The most likely explanation of this is that a typical reaction of oxidation occurred, with initial forming of peroxides and their subsequent decomposition into secondary oxidation products [21,37]. Importantly, there was no rapid rise in AsV (an increase from 5.6 to 8.67), indicating that the applied method of spray drying technique is effective enough no to pose the risk of secondary oxidation products forming during cold-storage of microcapsules. It should be noted that the microcapsules used for this research did not contain antioxidants, whose presence would certainly have slowed down the process of peroxides forming during storage. Initial analyses carried out for the purposes of this research project demonstrated that adding rosemary, oregano or sage extracts effectively inhibits the oxidation process not only during spray drying of emulsion but also during the subsequent storage of microcapsules [76]. There are numerous examples in the available literature of securing oxidative stability of microcapsules by adding antioxidants [13,61]. Importantly, despite high level of oxidation of the microcapsules and the presence of sodium chloride, no further oxidation was observed during technological processing. During heat treatment of fish in the presence of low amounts of salt an increase in lipid oxidation level is often observed [11,28]. There was no oxidation caused by the presence of salt in both the dough and the water, which can be attributed to high antioxidant potential of dumplings and/or formation of an additional protective barrier during starch pasting. Although the dumplings basically consisted of only potatoes and starch it was probably enough for the formation of a matrix, in which antioxidation prevailed over oxidation. It was probably such mechanism that prevented further development of oxidation despite the presence of salt. The main contributors to an antioxidation mechanism of the dumplings were probably chlorogenic acid and its isomers, which constitute about 90% of all phenolic compounds present in potato tubers. Apart from these compounds, acids such as cinnamic, p-coumaric, caffeic and ferulic acid were found, all of which also have antioxidant properties [22]. The study by Kowalczewski et al. [36] showed that, in fresh potato juice, the greatest antioxidant activity among protein fractions is revealed by the fraction with molecular weight of 80 000 Da, and among non-protein fraction by the fraction with molecular weight of 600 Da. According to Okada and Okada [51], the number of available sulfhydryl groups and lysine residues in protein molecules affects their antioxidant properties, which is connected with reduction of free radicals. Importantly, the ability to scavenge free radicals may increase due to denaturation of proteins [18]. Milk products are often fortified with fish oil because of their high antioxidant activity [29,49]. What is also important, antioxidant properties are very volatile and depend not only on the composition of antioxidants and the matrix but mainly on the interactions between the antioxidants and the matrix [38]. This research also showed that the amount of microcapsules added had no substantial effect on the amount of primary and secondary oxidation products in dumplings (Table 4, 5). Generally, products with higher fat content are more prone to oxidation [71]. Although interactions may occur between oxidation products and starch in food [55], it does not seem likely that the observed stability of PV and AsV could be the result of interaction between only the newly formed oxidation products. No substantial correlation was observed between the values of main indicators of lipid oxidation level and the addition of microcapsules. This was due to the fact that all the analyzed samples were virtually at the same level of oxidation. The research did not confirm that technological processing and the amount of microcapsules added positively affect the course lipid hydrolysis lipids in dumplings (Table 1). The observed high concentration of dienes (CD) and free fatty acids (AV) in the dumplings with no microcapsules was probably due to their high concentration in egg yolk, whose lipids were most likely at the early stage of oxidation. This is confirmed by AV and the amount of CD in lipids decreasing along with increasing the share of microcapsules. A statistically negative correlation was found between these two quality indicators and the amount of added microcapsules (Table 4, 5). One of the criteria of choosing food is its sensory quality. The data presented by Kreft and Zabrocki [40] prove that taste and smell are important factors taken into consideration when buying carp, rather than its and health nutritional value or even its price. The main problem of the food fortified with fish oils is the presence of rancid taste and odour associated with fish, causing such product to be rejected by consumers. This may the key factor for the commercial success of an entire endeavour, because, as Stampanoni [66] remarks, sensory quality of a product determines its consumer acceptance. Contrary to the popular belief that food with higher fat content is more easily fortified this research showed that Silesian dumplings, despite having almost no fat, can be fortified with oil without prejudice to their sensory qualities. Adding 3.76% of microcapsules to potato dough did not affect the perception of neither rancid smell nor taste in the dumplings. A similar result was observed for the version with 5.78% microcapsules. Only adding as much as 7.38% microcapsules brought about a slightly noticeable fish taste and smell. Both the sample with no microcapsules and the sample with 3.75% microcapsules were characterised by the taste and smell typical for the dish, and a slightly sweet taste (Fig. 1, 2). It should be noted that high level of oxidation of microcapsule lipids was mostly due to peroxides, which are not considered to affect sensory properties of fat [21]. It is the secondary oxidation products, mainly aldehydes such as 1-pentene-3-ol, 2,3-pentanedione or 1-octene-3-ol that are responsible for both fish and rancid odour [43,74,60]. It does not seem likely that (Z)-4-heptenal was responsible for the sweet taste of the dumplings [74]. The taste was probably a result of starch pasting. The undetectable or low fish and rancid odour in the dumplings might have been caused by starch, which was the main ingredient of the dish, and which was also present in the potatoes. Starch and its derivatives are widely used in the food industry as a stabiliser for volatile compounds [8]. Starch can bind volatile compounds by forming a complex compound and trapping volatile particles in the amylose helix during pasting or by hydrogen bonds of the hydroxyl groups of starch interacting with volatile compounds [8,50,57]. Arvisenet et al. [3,4] suggested that the possibility of volatile trapping caused by interaction between volatile compounds and glucose molecule in amylose and/or amylopectin from starch. Additionally, a study by Kolanowski et al. [35] showed that out of 12 instant dishes potato puree was the product that lent itself the most to being fortified with microcapsules. The available literature shows that starch products such as bread, pasta and biscuits can be fortified with significant amounts of fish oils without prejudice to their sensory qualities [9,26,70]. This research demonstrated that there is also no substantial correlation between the most important descriptors of both taste and smell, the addition of microcapsules and the rates of oxidation. Correlation coefficient ranged from 0.22 to 0.55 depending on the parameter under analysis (Table 4, 5). Lack of correlation between the analysed parameters can be attributed to the level of complexity of the food system for which such correlation does not always occur [33]. It is possible that, if the SPME technique was used to analyse the selected volatile compounds responsible for fish and rancid odour, it would reveal underlying correlations between the results of sensory and chemical analysis and the amount of microcapsules added [43]. The main observed effects, that is, an increase in hardness and changes in the remaining texture parameters, as revealed by the TPA, can probably be attributed to water content decreasing simultaneously with adding microcapsules. Different maltodextrin and starch content in various versions of dumplings might have also affected individual results [14,72]. This research also revealed that there is no correlation between the results of sensory analysis and instrumental parameters of texture (Table 6, Fig. 3). No such correlation was also observed after replacing maltodextrins in yoghurt with fat [10]. When fortifying food with fish oils, sensory acceptance of the product is as important as providing the food with an appropriate amount of n-3 LC PUFA. Unfortunately, even experts note that, despite numerous clinical trials, there is insufficient data to determine the body's daily requirement for EPA and DHA. The available literature shows that the most often recommended daily intake of EPA and DHA is between 200 and 500 mg. To meet these recommendations, as many as four to five fortified dishes should be consumed daily, which can be difficult to achieve [46]. Therefore, it would be best if one meal provided the recommended daily amount of EPA and DHA.

Table 1. Physical and chemical parameters of microcapsules and Silesian dumplings

parametr	M	addition of microcapsules (%)
		0	3.76	5.78	7.38
moisture (%)	-	66.54d	63.29c	59.41b	56.18a
fat (%)	40.12e	0.34a	1.66b	2.10c	2.58d
PV (meqO2/ kg lipids)	56.55b	0.00a	56.28b	59.19b	59.26b
AsV	8.67b	0.0a	9.06b	8.94b	8.63b
Totox	121.77b	0.0a	121.62b	127.15b	127.15b
CD (%)	0.82b	3.82c	2.57d	2.23e	1.60c
AV (mg KOH/g lipids)	1.51a	17.25a	4.30b	2.85b	2.22a

* - result significantly different in relation to the control at p=0.05 ** – standard content of Zn in MS medium M - microkapsules a, b - values represented by the same letters in row are not significantly different from each other with p≤ 0.05.

Table 2. Fatty acid content (mg/1g lipids and % of total fatty acids) of microkapsules and Silesian dumplings

FA	M	0	3.75	5.78	7.38	M	0	3.75	5.78	7.38
	mg/1g lipids					%
C 14:0	43.4	3.8	30.8	36.4	40.0	5.3	0.0	4.0	4.7	5.1
C 15:0	1.2	0.0	0.8	1.0	1.0	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.1	0.1
C 15:0	2.0	0.0	1.6	1.9	1.6	0.2	0.0	0.2	0.2	0.2
C 16:0	121.7	210.1	142.6	142.0	138.9	14.8	25.3	18.4	18.2	17.6
C 17:0	1.6	0.0	0.9	1.3	0.8	0.2	0.0	0.1	0.2	0.1
C 16:1 n-7	69.3	24.0	53.1	60.9	65.0	8.4	2.9	6.9	7.8	8.2
C 17:0	0.9	0.0	0.9	1.0	1.0	0.1	0.0	0.1	0.1	0.1
C 17:1	1.9	0.0	1.1	1.8	1.2	0.2	0.0	0.1	0.2	0.2
C 18:0	18.8	64.5	29.9	25.9	22.1	2.3	7.8	3.9	3.3	2.8
C 18:1 n-7	10.8	0.0	7.2	8.7	9.2	1.3	0.0	0.9	1.1	1.2
C 18:1 n-9	174.2	348.6	204.6	195.3	192.7	21.2	42.0	26.5	25.0	24.4
C 18:1 n-11	43.7	25.2	37.8	39.2	41.4	5.3	3.0	4.9	5.0	5.2
C 18:2 n-6	17.1	116.9	40.3	33.2	26.0	2.1	14.1	5.2	4.2	3.3
C 18:3 n-3	10.8	13.0	9.8	9.1	9.0	1.3	1.6	1.3	1.2	1.1
C 20:1 n-9	70.3	5.2	52.0	55.9	59.4	8.6	0.6	6.7	7.2	7.5
C 18:4 n-6	14.7	1.9	9.2	10.8	11.7	1.8	0.2	1.2	1.4	1.5
C 20:2 n-6	1.6	0.0	1.2	1.3	0.7	0.2	0.0	0.2	0.2	0.1
C 22:1 n-11	51.5	0.0	36.5	36.7	39.1	6.3	0.0	4.7	4.7	5.0
C 20:3 n-3	6.1	0.0	3.8	4.8	4.0	0.8	0.0	0.5	0.6	0.5
C 20:4 n-6	3.0	10.1	4.2	3.5	2.8	0.4	1.3	0.5	0.5	0.4
C 20:4 n-3	3.5	0.0	2.2	2.5	2.0	0.4	0.0	0.3	0.3	0.3
EPA n-3	71.1b	0.0a	46.6c	51.3d	58.7e	8.7	0.0	6.0	6.6	7.4
C 24:1	2.2	0.0	1.6	1.4	1.1	0.3	0.0	0.2	0.2	0.1
C 22:5 n-3	5.7	0.0	3.8	4.1	3.9	0.7	0.0	0.5	0.5	0.5
DHA n-3	73.0d	6.6a	50.2b	51.3b	56.9c	8.9	0.8	6.5	6.6	7.2
SFA	189.6a	278.3c	207.6b	209.5b	205.3b	23.1	33.5	26.8	26.8	26.0
MUFA	423.9c	403.2ab	393.9a	399.8ab	409.2b	51.7	48.6	51.0	51.2	51.8
PUFA	206.6c	148.5a	171.3b	171.9b	175.7b	25.2	17.9	22.2	22.0	22.2
n-6 PUFA	36.4a	128.9e	54.9d	48.8c	41.2b	4.4	15.5	7.1	6.2	5.2
n-3 PUFA	170.2e	19.6a	116.3b	123.1c	134.5d	20.8	2.4	15.1	15.7	17.0
EPA+DHA	144.1e	6.6a	96.8b	102.6c	115.6d	17.6	0.8	12.5	13.1	14.6
Σ FA	820.0c	829.9c	772.8a	781.3ab	790.2b
n-6/ n-3	0.2a	6.57e	0.5d	0.4c	0.3b

FA - fatty acids, M - microkapsules, SFA - saturated FA, MUFA - monounsaturated FA, PUFA- polyenoic FA a, b values represented by the same letters in row are not significantly different from each other with p≤ 0.05.

Table 3. The contents of sum EPA + DHA (mg) of 100 g Silesian dumplings and dish

%	100g	main dish (300g)	side dish (200g)
3.76	160.7	482.1	321.4
5.78	215.5	646.4	430.9
7.38	298.2	894.6	596.4

% - addition of microcapsules

Table 4. Correlation as described by Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) between smell and different measures

	%	fishes	typical	rancid	sweet	PV	AsV	Totox	CD
fishes	0.22
typical	-0.26	-0.03
rancid	0.22	0.79*	0.02
sweet	-0.01	-0.27	0.27	-0.30
PV	0.48	0.16	-0.19	0.16	-0.19
AsV	-0.51	-0.60*	-0.21	-0.4	-0.26	-0.01
Totox	0.45	0.05	-0.16	0.14	-0.21	0.96*	0.12
CD	-0.97*	-0.21	0.24	-0.19	-0.01	-0.28	0.54	-0.25
AV	-0.99*	-0.23	0.27	-0.24	0.02	-0.59	0.48	-0.56	0.92*

% - addition of microcapsules correlation coefficient marked with *are statistically significant (p≤0.05).

Table 5. Correlation as described by Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) between taste and different measures

	%	fishes	typical	rancid	sweet
fishes	0.50
typical	-0.27	0.25
rancid	0.36	0.50	-0.05
sweet	-0.02	0.19	0.29	-0.32
PV	0.48	0.26	-0.21	0.18	-0.19
AsV	-0.51	-0.30	-0.04	-0.57	-0.02
Totox	0.45	0.24	-0.30	0.14	-0.23
CD	-0.97*	-0.49	0.25	-0.36	-0.04
AV	-0.99*	-0.50	0.27	-0.36	0.06

% - addition of microcapsules correlation coefficient marked with *are statistically significant (p≤0,05).

Table 6. Texture parameters of Silesian dumplings

[%]	Texture profile parametrs
	hardness [N]	gumminess	chewiness	springiness	cohesiveness	elasticity
0	12.87c	10.1c	9.82c	0.98a	0.79a	0.49c
3.76	16.84b	13.12a	12.54b	1.03c	0.78a	0.52b
5.78	20.89a	13.78a	16.4a	1.09b	0.71b	0.43a
7.38	21.57a	16.21b	15.62a	0.96a	0.77a	0.44a

% - addition of microcapsules a, b values represented by the same letters in column are not significantly different from each other with p≤ 0.05.

Figure 1. Sensory profile of Silesian dumplings taste

Figure 2. Sensory profile of Silesian dumplings smell

Figure 3. Sensory profile of Silesian dumplings texture

DISCUSSION

This study demonstrates that Silesian dumplings with an addition of only 3.75% of microcapsules, if served as a main dish, can provide nearly a daily amount of EPA and DHA of 500 mg as recommended by ISSFAL [32]. If the daily intake is set at 250 mg, as proposed by EFSA [19], it is enough to consume about 160 g of the dish, which is less than the weight of a portion of dumplings served in addition to other dishes. It can be concluded that the obtained result is satisfactory and, basing on the literature, it can be stated that in order to satisfy the above requirements the following amounts of products should be consumed: 1000 ml of fortified tomato juice [23], 80 g of bread [9], 110 g of goat cheese [29] or 3750 mg of mashed potatoes [35].

It can be surmised that if the microcapsules used for the research contained antioxidants and were stored for a shorter period of time, fortifying the dish with 5.78% of microcapsules would produce the same result of sensory analysis as in the case of the 3.75% version.

CONCLUSIONS

Fortifying food in mass catering facilities during preparing meals and directly before consumption can be an alternative to fortifying food products. Given that oxidation processes occur slower in stored microcapsules than in fortified products, such way of preparing food may be safer for health. Dishes made from potato dough, such as Silesian dumplings, can be a valuable material for fortification – adding 3.75% of microcapsules with higher levels of oxidation does not significantly affect the sensation of fish and rancid smell and taste of this dish. A 300 g portion of dumplings served as the main course nearly meets the required daily intake of EPA and DHA of 500 mg. Technological processing does not significantly affect the level of oxidation and hydrolysis of microcapsule lipids. A 300 gram serving of dumplings (with 3.76% microcapsules added) contains half the amount of oxidation products of 100 g of potato chips [58].

 

This study was carried out within the project co-financed under the OPIE 2007-2013. Priority 1. Research and development of modern technologies. Measure 1.3 Support for R&D projects for entrepreneurs carried out by scientific entities. Sub-measure 1.3.1. Development projects. Project name: “Health promoting food additives containing immobilized unsaturated fatty acids and pro biotic bacteria obtained by spray drying”

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Accepted for print: 24.06.2013

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Zdzisław Domiszewski
Food Quality Department,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Papieża Pawła VI St. 3, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland
Phone: + 48 (091) 449 65 64
email: zdzislaw.domiszewski@zut.edu.pl

Grzegorz Bienkiewicz
Food Quality Department,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Papieża Pawła VI St. 3, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland

Alicja Tarnowiecka-Kuca
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Klemensa Janickiego St. 35, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland

Sebastian Żywicki
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Klemensa Janickiego St. 35, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland

Grzegorz Tokarczyk
Food Technology Department,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Papieża Pawła VI St. 3, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland

Wioletta Krawczyńska
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Klemensa Janickiego St. 35, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland

Agnieszka Hrebień-Filisińska
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Klemensa Janickiego St. 35, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland

Marta Rogalewska
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Klemensa Janickiego St. 35, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland

Ewelina Synowiec
Food Quality Department,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Papieża Pawła VI St. 3, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland
Phone: + 48 (091) 449 65 64

Agata Laskowska
Food Quality Department,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Papieża Pawła VI St. 3, 71-459 Szczecin, Poland
Phone: + 48 (091) 449 65 64

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