MESO- AND MICROCLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE CRACOW-CZĘSTOCHOWA UPLAND

Anita Bokwa¹, Zbigniew Caputa², Grzegorz Durło³, Wojciech Maciejowski¹, Jakub Wojkowski^4
1 Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
² Chair of Climatology, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland
³ Chair of Forest Protection and Forest Climatology, University of Agriculture in Cracow, Poland
⁴ Chair of Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology, University of Agriculture in Cracow, Poland

ABSTRACT

In the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, the meso- and microclimatic research was started in the 1960s. After 1990, automatic measurements were introduced, multi-annual measurements campaigns were organised, and the elements of the radiation balance and heat balance were included. It allowed better recognition of the local climate differentiation and a new approach to the valorisation and typology of the meso- and microclimates of the study area.

Key words: mesoclimate, microclimate, Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, typology, valorisation.

INTRODUCTION

The human impact on the natural environment of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland is very differentiated. The area is used for agriculture, forestry, industrial and touristic activities, the latter concerning various leisure time and recreation forms of the Cracow agglomeration's inhabitants. At present, an increasing interest in recreation followed by changes in land use, including construction of new touristic infrastructure, and anthropopression getting gradually stronger are observed [8,34]. Therefore, the authors of the paper hope that the presented meso- and microclimatic typology and valorisation of the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland will contribute to the better and sustainable development of the area.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

According to E. Romer [30], the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland (Fig. 1) belongs to the climatic region of Central Poland Uplands, to the Silesia-Cracow division. M. Hess [10,11] included that area to the sub-region of Cracow Upland, belonging to the Cracow-Miechów region. The Cracow Valleys Landscape Park (in Polish: Dolinki Krakowskie) and Ojców National Park (with the area of 2146 ha) are located in the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland [6]. The area of ONP is characterized by the great variability of land forms exposure which results in topoclimatic diversity, well expressed in plant cover as observed by the botanists [14,32].

Fig. 1. Localisation of measurement sites in the study area

Table 1. Localization of meteorological post

No	Station	Latitude	Longitude	High m a.s.l	Land form
1	OPN1	50° 12' 35''	19° 49' 44''	328	valley bottom
2	Będkowice	50° 10' 13''	19° 45' 10''	420	plateau
3	Brzezinka	50° 09' 01''	19° 44' 15''	278	gentle slope
4	Wierzchowie	50° 10' 30''	19° 48' 23''	380	summit
5	Narama	50° 10' 39''	19° 56' 37''	348	plateau
6	Zelków	50° 09' 24''	19° 49' 31''	319	gentle slope
7	Karniowice	50° 09' 31''	19° 45' 49''	345	gentle slope
8	Bolechowice	50° 09' 11''	19° 47' 04''	313	valley bottom
9	Będkowska	50° 10' 18''	19° 44' 24''	328	valley bottom
10	Racławice	50° 12' 19''	19° 40' 43''	372	valley bottom
11	Garlica	50° 08' 11''	19° 55' 47''	256	valley bottom
12	OPN2	50° 12' 35''	19° 49' 46''	338	valley bottom
13	OPN3	50° 12' 10''	19° 49' 21''	455	steep slope
14	Sąspów	50° 14' 07''	19° 47' 22''	460	plateau
15	OPN4	50° 12' 10''	19° 49' 34''	355	valley bottom
16	Skała	50° 14' 00''	19° 51' 10''	320	urbanized area
17	OPN5	50° 12' 20''	19° 49' 53''	361	valley bottom
18	Jerzmanowice	50° 12' 16''	19° 46' 56''	478	plateau
19	Dubie	50° 09' 29''	19° 41' 28''	293	valley bottom

Valleys and flattened ridge tops with their particular microclimates dominate in the relief of ONP. The valleys are both large gorges (about 100 m deep) and little karst valleys (canyons and ravines). Terraces together with alluvial cones and talus cones can be found there. The flattened ridge tops are found on monadnocks surrounded by Quaternary deposits [27]. Prądnik River is the main river of ONP. Its only permanent tributary is Sąspówka. The water in streams and springs in the valleys has a relatively low temperature of about 8–10°C [28].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Meteorological measurements in the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland in the years 1960-1990
Regular measurements were begun in 1961–63 [18]. Four climatic regions were distinguished according to the air temperature and humidity differences, and the maps of plant communities in Ojców National Park were completed [20]. J. Klein continued the measurements in 1964–68 and divided the area into meso- and microclimatic regions which he characterised in detail [15,16]. Next measurement series was realised in the years 1987–89 and it included sunshine duration and solar radiation intensity [17]. In 1974, researchers and students of the Department of Climatology, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, performed a short microclimatic measurement series in the vicinity of the Chełm natural reserve near Zawiercie [23]. Additionally, in 1960s, in the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, a few climatological and pluvial posts of the National Hydrological-Meteorological Institute (at present: Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, IMWM) were operated. At present, there are no IMWM posts in the study area, except the pluvial post in the Sąspówka valley, by the fish ponds. Regular meteorological observations are performed in Ojców (the station belongs to ONP) and in Garlica Murowana (the station belongs to the Chair of Meteorology and Agricultural Climatology of the Agricultural Academy in Cracow). Ojców National Park is located in the highest part of Cracow-Częstochowa Upland. Unfortunately, the knowledge about the climate of the area is very poor, as in the whole Upland region there is no well located meteorological station apart from the one in Olkusz (398 m a.s.l., now moved to the village of Olewin near Olkusz).

The studies based on measurements described above showed that for example near Olkusz the mean annual wind speed varied from 1.7 m·s^-1 in the valleys to 3.0 m·s^-1 on the flattened ridge tops. The frequency of atmospheric calms was higher in the valley than on the convex land forms [33]. In the Krzeszowice Trough, a high correlation between wind direction and relief was found [24]. Klein [15,16] proved that in the Sąspowska Valley, in the years 1964-1967, mean annual air temperature at the flattened ridge top was 7.5°C, while in the valley 6.2°C. Later, Partyka calculated mean annual air temperature for the Prądnik river valley using the measurements from the period 1990-2005 from the station Ojców-Castle Park and it was 6.9°C. Mean monthly values varied from -2.5°C in January to 16.7°C in July (Fig. 2) (unpublished data).

Fig. 2. Mean monthly air temperatures at 2 m above the ground at the station Ojców-Park Zamkowy in the years 1990-2005

Higher air temperature ranges in concave than in convex land forms proved the increase of climatic continentality [24]. It resulted from the solar radiation distribution in the valleys [4,5,11]. A similar situation occurred between cold northern slopes and very warm southern slopes. The highest contrasts were observed on hot, summer days, when the air temperature on northern, shaded slopes did not exceed 20°C, while on southern, limestone slopes it reached even 60°C in the air layer near the ground [1,2]. Temperature inversions were a very characteristic feature; they occurred in the valleys of Olkusz Upland and in the Krzeszowice Trough [25]. The frequency of days with temperature inversion reached even 256 days per year and the highest observed air temperature difference values were about 9-10°C  [24,28]. In winter, an intensive decrease of air humidity with altitude was observed which was connected with frequent air temperature inversions. In summer, the opposite situation occurred. Air temperature inversions and humidity changes were linked with the fog occurrence all year long. Fogs filled the Krzeszowice Trough and the Cracow Valleys up to 280–300 m a.s.l. [25]. There the frequency of days with fog was the highest (about 80 days per year), while at the flattened ridge tops it was the smallest (only up to 40 days per year) [24]. Sometimes on sunny mornings the valleys were still filled with fog while the hill tops already received direct solar radiation.

Meso- and microclimatic measurements in the southern part of Cracow-Częstochowa Upland after 1990
After 1990, a few institutions have organised meteorological measurements in the study area, especially in Ojców National Park. The results have been used to solve particular research problems, but on the other hand they complete each other and make a complex data base which allows characterize meso- and microclimate of the study area but also continue and widen the former research activities. The Chair of Forest Protection and Forest Climatology, Agriculture Academy in Cracow, organised meteorological measurements and observations of snow cover in the period 1.01.1997–31.12.1999 at three points in Ojców National Park, on NE slopes of the Chełmowa Mt. from the Sąspowska valley side, at 300–450 m a.s.l. In the years 2000 and 2001, only patrol measurements were performed in the Cracow Valleys Landscape Park, and only in the warm half-year (May-October). In spring 2002, four permanent measurement points were established: Będkowice, Brzezinka, Wierzchowie and Narama (Table 1).
At present, synchronous, continuous measurements are realised at all points every hour with the automatic data loggers. They include air temperature (t), soil temperature (tg), air humidity (f) and light intensity.

In the warm half-year, patrol microclimatic measurement series are performed at 50 points, located in the Cracow Valleys Landscape Park. The points are distributed as follows: 10 in the Kluczwoda stream valley (Karniowice), 12 in the Kobylańska valley, 9 in the Bolechowicka valley, 11 in the Będkowska valley, 8 in the Racławka stream valley (Dubie) (Table 1). The micro- and topoclimatic measurements are performed in the rotational system, in four series, at least at 60% of all research areas. One measurement series lasts about 48 hours for manual measurements and 744 hours for automatic measurements. At all points the following elements are measured simultaneously:

• air temperature and relative humiditz at 5, 50 and 200 cm above the ground (with the HOBO sensors and data loggers, produced by Onset Corp., sensors HOBO H8 RH\Temp\External, and Hobo Pro Series RH/Temp with external temperature sensors, and also with Assmann psychrometers TB19AI;

• wind speed and direction at 180 and 200 cm above the ground (anemometer produced by Huger and Technics);

• ground temperature at 5, 10 and 20 cm (soil thermometers);

• evaporation at 5 and 200 cm above the ground with the Piche evaporometer;

• snow cover depth with a mobile snow depth indicator;

• bioclimatic dry cooling power at 180 cm above the ground with the Hill kata-thermometer;

• light intensity at 5 and 50 cm above the ground with the manually operated photometer ST1301;

• soil surface temperature with a thermistor thermometer PANID;

• minimum air temperature at 5 cm above the ground with a minimum thermometer in a standard shelter.

• Additionally, a mobile automatic meteorological station DAVIS Vantage Pro2 performs the complete set of meteorological measurements [7].

The Chair of Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology, Agriculture Academy in Cracow, has performed the meteorological measurements and observations since 1960s at the station in Garlica Murowana. The station is located on a flattened ridge top at 281 m a.s.l. (φ=50°08'N, λ=19°56'E). Standard measurements are performed three times per day and include t, air humidity indices, precipitation, wind speed and direction and the atmospheric pressure. Observations concern cloudiness, ground state, snow cover and meteorological phenomena. Since 1995, continuous measurements have been also performed using Lambrecht, ELE-International and Ecoclima automatic meteorological station (measurements every 10 minutes, recording of mean hourly values). The measured elements are: t and f, tg, elements of the radiation balance, sunshine duration, atmospheric pressure, precipitation and wind direction and speed. In the years 2001-2003, topoclimatic measurements were performed in ONP (totally 520 days). Measurement posts were located in five points representing characteristic types of the ONP environment: OPN1, OPN3, OPN4, OPN5, Garlica and Skała (Table 1).
Electronic sensors of t and f produced by StowAway were installed in radiation shelters at 200 cm above the ground and the parameters are registered every 30 minutes.

The Chair of Climatology, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, performed meteorological measurements in the period 5–15.09.1999 in some points: OPN2 and Jerzmanowice. At both points, the data logger CR23X produced by Campbell Scientific, registered mean 10-minute values of f (at 200 cm above the ground, with HMP45C sensor produced by Vaisala), t and tg (–10, 0, 50, 200 cm, electric thermometer Pt-100), wind speed and direction (300 cm, A100R and W200P sensors, produced by Vector Instruments) and radiation balance elements (150 cm above the ground, K↓, K↑, L↓, L↑ (the symbols are explained in the section 5.1), CNR1 sensor, produced by Kipp&Zonen). The valley has flat bottom and steep E and W slopes, it is narrow (50–150 m), deep (100 m), going from the north to the south. It is surrounded from the west by the Złota Mt. (458 m a.s.l.) and the Chełmowa Mt. (473 m a.s.l.) and from the east by the Smardzewska Mt. (438 m a.s.l.). The station at the flattened ridge top was located on a slightly convex, ploughed surface, not covered by the vegetation, well representing the agricultural character of ONP ridge tops. The height difference between both points was 162 m which is close to the value typical for most ONP valleys.

Mesoclimatic patterns of chosen meteorological elements
The Chair of Climatology, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, organised the measurements of the solar radiation balance structure in the period 5-15.09.1999 [3]. Changes of global radiation (K↓) during the daytime on the ridge top were in connection with the changes of the Sun position, due to the lack of the horizon obstruction (Fig. 3). On a clear day of 13.09.1999 the solar radiation intensity reached 600-700 W·m^-2. In the valley bottom, the radiation intensity changes were disturbed due to the horizon obstruction by the Smardzewska Mt. and Złota Mt. Another factor was the presence of large, fully leaved trees. That is why the valley received 2 MJ·m^-2 less energy during the day than the ridge top (Fig. 4) which was also marked in the radiation balance structure. Absorbed radiation (K*) reached 12.3 MJ·m^-2 for the grass-covered ground and 13.6 MJ·m^-2 for the ploughed field on clear days and on days with variable cloudiness. Due to the horizon obstruction, less daily sums of K* were noted in the valley (on average by 1.29 MJ·m^-2) than on the ridge top. In the valley bottom, the increase of t in the morning was in close connection with the changes of short-wave radiation intensity; t increased intensively as late as a few hours after the sunrise, while on the ridge top the increase used to begin right after the sunrise. Large differences were observed in daily changes of long-wave radiation (of the atmosphere L↓ and the ground L↑) between the valley and the ridge top. At the ridge top, L↓ showed smaller variation during the day than in the valley which was followed by less variable t changes, both during the night and daytime. The largest values of L↑ were observed during the night and around noon which is a consequence of an intensive warming and long-wave radiation emission. Wind speed was an important factor controlling the cooling of a surface without vegetation. The largest values of long-wave radiation were noted in evening hours when the wind speed decreased to about 0.6 m·s^-1. In the river valley bottom, the elements of L* showed small changes during the night because of the occurrence of atmospheric calm or wind speed less than 0.2 m·s^-1which in turn allowed fog origin.

Fig. 3. Radiative balance components for the bare (unvegetated) surface of the upland (left) and grass surface in the Prądnik Valley (right) in Ojców on 13.09.1999

Fig. 4. Structure of radiative balance for the bare (unvegetated) surface of the upland (left) and grass surface in the Prądnik Valley (right) in Ojców on 13.09.1999. Symbols are explained in the text

Daily changes of the radiation balance Q* in the valley are significantly different than on the ridge top. During the night its values were negative and much larger on the ridge top (–100 W·m^-2) than in the valley (–30 W·m^-2). During the day (Q*_d), the relief controls the values of Q* in the morning and in the evening. Cloudiness is also an important factor as Q* values are less by 30% during the days with variable cloudiness than on clear days. The values of K* and L*_d (daily balance of L*) are larger on the ridge top for the ploughed surface than for the grass-covered surface (by 1.0 MJ·m^-2 and 1.1 MJ·m^-2 in daily sum, respectively). The differences are even larger for the long-wave radiation in the night (Q*_n = 2.2 MJ·m^-2). For the full radiation spectrum, the balance has higher values for the valley bottom by 2.3 MJ·m^-2. The active surface in the valley receives on clear days more energy than it emitts, therefore it has a positive energy balance which decides about the heat balance and microclimatic conditions.

The research organised by the Chair of Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology, Agriculture Academy in Cracow, proved that thermal conditions of Ojców National Park are controlled mainly by the relief and land use [35]. The air temperature in the valleys and at the ridge tops differs significantly. In summer, over grass-covered surface, the temperature inversion accompanied the negative radiation balance. The inversion disappeared before noon due to the income of direct solar radiation to the valley bottom, and it occurred again when the Sun was close to the horizon. Daily changes of t were the greatest in valley bottoms. In winter, ridge tops were cooler on average by 3.0 K than valley bottoms. In summer, in forrested areas, the temperature inversion prevailed all day long; the ridge tops were warmer by 2.5 K on average. Daily changes of t on ridge tops and in the valleys were very similar. In winter, in forrested areas, ridge tops were much cooler than valley bottoms. Like in case of grass-covered surface, the insolation pattern prevailed all day long so land use has a huge impact on thermal conditions. On ridge tops, the highest values of t were noted in urbanised areas. It results from the intensive warming of the urban active surface and much less heat losses for evaporation comparing to natural surfaces. In urban areas and over grass-covered surfaces, the cloudless weather favoured high heat outgoing radiation in the night which was followed by a significant decrease in air temperature. In summer, after the sunrise, the differences in air temperature between the meadow and the forest quickly decreased and during daytime over the meadow was much higher than in the forest. In winter, the lowest mean daily t occurred at the meadow, especially on the ridge top. The forest loses the energy slower, both in winter and in summer, due to the insulation provided by the vegetation. Therefore, the values of minimum temperature were relatively high and temperature range much smaller than elsewhere.

In Ojców National Park the relief has much larger impact on t than the altitude and the adiabatic decrease of t connected with it. In summer, on a clear day the difference in daily mean air temperature between the ridge top and valley bottom reached 3.6°C. The highest values of t inversion were observed in summer during the night when valley bottoms cooled most quickly. In winter the inversion did not occur. In concave land forms, the evening decrease of t was faster than on convex land forms due to already mentioned shorter time of exposition to the direct solar radiation. On ridge tops, the decrease of t occurred after sunset and the cooled air from the layer near the ground flowed down gravitationally and gathered in the valley bottoms. On the next day, the inversion usually dissapeared due to the income of solar radiation. Daily t ranges depend in a large extent on relief. They were higher in valley bottoms than on ridge tops, on average by 5.0°C in summer and 2.0°C in winter. It proves more severe t regime in the valleys than on the ridge tops which can be also seen in the vegetation cover distribution and composition as shown by Medwecka-Kornaś and Kornaś [21].

The large differentiation of t in the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland can also be found in thermal seasons’ occurrence [35]. Significant differences were observed for the beginning, end and duration of particular seasons in various land forms. In the valley bottoms the thermal conditions are much more severe than in other areas. Thermal summer was shorter there by 33 days and the winter longer by 34 days on average (Table 2).

Table 2. The beginning (P), the end (K) and duration in days (D) of the given thermal periods (1990-2000)

Thermal periods	Flat area			Convex area			Concave area
	P	K	D	P	K	D	P	K	D
Winter	7.12	13.02	67	5.12	8.02	64	25.11	3.03	98
Early spring	14.02	25.03	41	9.02	25.03	46	4.03	5.04	33
Spring	26.03	22.04	28	26.03	21.04	27	6.04	4.05	29
Early summer	23.04	26.05	34	22.04	30.05	39	5.05	13.06	40
Summer	27.05	5.09	102	3 .05	8.09	101	14.06	20.08	68
Late summer	6.09	6.10	31	9.09	8.10	29	21.08	21.09	33
Autumn	7.10	2.11	27	9.10	3.11	27	22.09	24.10	32
Forewinter	3.11	7.12	35	4.11	5.12	31	25.10	25.11	32
Growing season	26.03	2.11	222	26.03	3.11	224	6.04	24.10	202

Durło [9] constructed a model of minimum temperature differentiation in various land forms in the area of the Cracow Valleys. For upper, middle and lower parts of slopes of various inclination and exposure, for hill tops and valley bottoms, deviations of minimum temperature comparing to a flat surface were calculated, separately for spring, summer and autumn. The results come from of chosen series of microclimatic measurements executed in time of cloudless weather. The largest positive deviations (+5.2°C) occur in spring at hill tops while the largest negative deviations (-6.2°C) were noted in spring in the valley bottom. The smallest deviations (up to 1°C) can be found in middle parts of gentle slopes, regardless the exposure and they are positive ones. Most clear contrasts in minimum temperature occurred between the top of heights and valley bottom. The highest probability of the occurrence of ground frosts was in the closed valley-bottoms and in lower parts of gentle slopes; the lowest – in upper parts of steep slopes (Table 3).

Table 3. The deviation of air minimum temperature in different landforms in proportion to flat ground

Land form	Deviation of minimum air temperature (oC)			Probability of ground frost (%)
	spring	summer	autumn
Plateau, hilltop	0.0	0.0	0.0	50.0
Summits	5.2	3.2	4.1	15.0
Upper parts of northern steep slopes	1.5	1.4	1.6	10.0
Upper parts of southern steep slopes	3.5	3.1	3.8	10.0
Upper parts of western steep slopes	2.7	2.5	3.2	10.0
Upper parts of eastern steep slopes	3.1	2.7	2.9	10.0
Upper parts of northern gentle slopes	1.5	1.0	1.2	15.0
Upper parts of southern gentle slopes	2.1	1.8	2.0	20.0
Upper parts of western gentle slopes	1.5	1.3	1.5	20.0
Upper parts of eastern gentle slopes	1.7	1.5	1.5	20.0
Middle parts of northern steep slopes	0.3	1.3	0.2	20.0
Middle parts of southern steep slopes	3.1	2.6	3.0	25.0
Middle parts of western steep slopes	1.0	2.2	0.9	20.0
Middle parts of eastern steep slopes	0.6	2.5	0.5	15.0
Middle parts of northern gentle slopes	0.3	0.2	0.3	55.0
Middle parts of southern gentle slopes	0.5	0.6	0.5	60.0
Middle parts of western gentle slopes	0.8	0.5	0.6	50.0
Middle parts of eastern gentle slopes	0.5	0.3	0.5	50.0
Lower parts of northern steep slopes	-1.0	-0.5	-0.8	15.0
Lower parts of southern steep slopes	-3.2	-1.6	-2.9	20.0
Lower parts of western steep slopes	-1.8	-1.1	-1.6	20.0
Lower parts of eastern steep slopes	-1.7	-1.0	-1.5	15.0
Lower parts of northern gentle slopes	-2.1	-0.8	-1.8	60.0
Lower parts of southern gentle slopes	-5.3	-2.6	-4.1	75.0
Lower parts of western gentle slopes	-4.0	-2.1	-3.0	70.0
Lower parts of eastern gentle slopes	-3.0	-1.8	-2.7	70.0
Closed valley bottom	-6.2	-4.3	-5.1	90.0
Open valley bottom	-4.1	-3.0	-3.7	95.0

The model can be used to evaluate topoclimatic conditions of the areas with differentiated relief and to make their valorisation in various temporal and spatial scales. The deviations of t min. can be used in cartographic studies concerning spatial pattern of air minimum temperature in upland areas where the number of meteorological stations is not sufficient to obtain the needed measurements.

The southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland is an area with a very differentiated relief but from the mesoclimatic point of view it is important that the Cracow Valleys go from north to south while the Krzeszowice Trough, located along the southern border of the region, goes from west to east. That factor controls the income of solar radiation, t, wind speed and direction, snow cover duration, etc. The spatial differences of those elements are the main reason for meso- and microclimatic zones distribution.
A. Nowak [24,25] distinguished three types of mesoclimate in the Krzeszowice Trough: I – valley type, II – slope type, III – ridge top type, and then divided them further into six sub-types of mesoclimate.

The valley type (I) comprises the bottom of the Krzeszowice Trough up to 300-310 m a.s.l. and the valleys of in the Olkusz Upland and Tenczyn Ridge up to 380 m a.s.l. It is characterised with high t range (mean daily t range is about 10.0°C) and often occurrence of t inversions, fog and ground frost. The differentiated relief together with large differences in snow cover duration and radiation fog propagation were considered to define three sub-types  of mesoclimate:
I_A – the sub-type of the lowest part of the Krzeszowice Trough up to 280 m a.s.l., with the largest number of days with ground frost and fog and with the largest t range;
I_B – the sub-type of the higher part of the Krzeszowice Trough (280-310 m a.s.l.), with less intensity of the phenomena mentioned;
I_C – the sub-type of the side valleys up to 380 m a.s.l., with the longest snow cover duration, the smallest wind speed, high frequency of atmospheric calm and large relief differentiation, resulting in large variety of microclimate types.

The slope type (II) comprises northern and southern slopes of the Krzeszowice Trough and southern slopes of the Tenczyn Ridge. Its characteristic features are of transitional nature between those of valley bottoms and ridge tops. Two sub-types of mesoclimate were distinguished depending on the exposure:
II_D – the sub-type of the warm slopes of southern exposure and the altitude of 310 to 380 m a.s.l., with the highest sunshine duration values and the shortest duration of the snow cover;
II_E – the sub-type of the cold slopes of northern exposure and the altitude of 280 to 350 m a.s.l., with the lowest sunshine duration values and long duration of the snow cover.

The ridge top type (III) comprises the highest parts of the ridges in the Olkusz Upland (above 380 m a.s.l.) and in the Tenczyn Ridge (above 360 m a.s.l.). It is characterised by higher precipitation sums than in other areas, stronger winds, lower fog and ground frost frequency and lack of t inversion. The daily changes of t are of lower magnitude; the mean daily t range is about 5.0-5.6°C, which is much less than in the valley type of mesoclimate. Those climatic features are typical for convex land forms [11]

Maciejowski [19] constructed a microclimatic typology of the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland, using the results of Nowak. The analysis of the relief, snow cover duration, distribution of plant communities and land use allowed distinguish twenty types of microclimate (Table 4). Additionally, a map of relative insolation was constructed using the assumption that the annual sum of insolation on a flat surface is 100% [31].

Table 4. The typology of meso- and microclimatic conditions in the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland

Mesoclimate type	Symbol	Mesoclimate sub-type	Symbol	Microclimate type	Symbol	Land use and vegetation
The valley type with the highest daily air temperature and humidity variability, and with the most differentiated mesoclimatic conditions mean daily air temperature range 7.3-10.0 K	I	the sub-type of the lowest part of the Krzeszowice Trough of the altitude 235-280 m a.s.l., with the largest temperature and humidity contrasts mean daily air temperature range 9.3-10.0 K number of days with the ground-frost in the very bottom of the Rudawa valley and in lower parts of the Neogene planation surface: from 80 to over 90 days·year -1	IA	Cold and humid valley bottoms and higher terraces (insolation 100%)	a1	fertile wet meadows, arable fields
				Warmer and drier slopes with good insolation (101-105%) and shorter snow cover duration	a2	arable fields, orchards
		the sub-type of the higher part of the Krzeszowice Trough (280-310 m a.s.l.) mean daily air temperature range 8.8-9.3 K number of days with the ground-frost in the higher part of the Neogene planation surface: from 70 to 80 days·year -1	IB	Warm and dry high plains' tops (insolation 100%)	b1	arable fields
		the sub-type of the side karst valleys up to 380 m a.s.l. mean daily air temperature range 7.3-8.3 K number of days with the ground-frost from below 65 days·year-1 in the higher parts of karst valleys slopes to 80 days·year-1 in their bottoms	IC	Very cold and very humid valley bottoms of W-E axis, with least favourable insolation conditions (100%) and the longest snow cover duration	c1	fertile wet meadows, riparian forest
				Cold and humid valley bottoms of N-S axis, with better insolation at noon hours (100%) and shorter snow cover duration	c2	dry-ground forest, humid meadows, pasture
				Warm slopes of the southern exposure, with good insolation (105-127%) and the shortest snow cover duration	c3	dry-ground forest, beech forest
				Moderately warm slopes of the eastern and western exposure, with quite good insolation (94-102%)	c4	dry-ground forest, beech wood, mixed coniferous forests
				Cooler and more humid slopes of the northern exposure with rather poor insolation (80-102%)	c5	dry-ground forest, Carpathian beech forest
				Moderately warm and humid channels of the cold air flow in the cuts of the karst valleys slopes	c6	dry-ground forest
				Very warm and dry monadnocks with slopes of very good insolation conditions (122-137%)	c7	grass on the rock, xerothermic brushwood
				Cold and dry monadnocks with slopes of rather poor insolation (43-102%)	c8	dry-ground forest, beech forest
The slope type comprising warmer and drier slopes of the Krzeszowice Trough, with the features transitional between the ones of the valleys and the ridge tops mean daily air temperature range 6.5-8.7 K	II	the sub-type of the warm slopes of southern exposure and the altitude of 310 to 380 m a.s.l. mean daily air temperature range 6.5-8.3 K number of days with the ground-frost from below 65 daysˇyear-1 in the parts of slopes located at the border with the Upland to 75 daysˇyear-1 in the parts located at the border with the Krzeszowice Trough	IID	Very warm and very dry slopes with very good insolation (115-137%)	d1	natural xerothermic grass, xerothermic brushwood
				Warm and dry slopes with good insolation (104-117%)	d2	xerothermic grass, dry-ground forest
				Channels of cold air flow in the cuts on the slopes with lower insolation due to slope shadowing	d3	mixed coniferous forest, dry-ground forest
		the sub-type of the cold slopes of northern exposure and the altitude of 280 to 350 m a.s.l. mean daily air temperature range 7.9-8.7 K number of days with the ground-frost from 60 daysˇyear-1 in the parts of slopes located at the border with the ridge top of the Tenczyn Ridge to 80 daysˇyear-1 at the bottom of the Krzeszowice Trough	IIE	Very cold and very humid slopes with rather poor insolation (43-87%)	e1	Carpathian beech forest, mixed coniferous forest
				Warmer and drier slopes with better insolation (87-102%)	e2	mixed coniferous forest
				Channels of cold air flow in the cuts on the slopes, with longer snow cover duration	e3	Carpathian beech forest, dry-ground forest
The ridge top type with the smallest daily changes in air temperature and humidity mean daily air temperature range 5.0-5.6 K	III	Flat and hilly ridge tops of the Olkusz Upland located above 380 m a.s.l. and of the Tenczyn Ridge located above 350 m a.s.l. number of days with the ground-frost below 65 days·year -1	IIIF	Relatively warm and dry open ridge tops	f1	ploughland, pasture
				Relatively cold and humid forested ridge tops with lower maximum air temperature in comparison to an open area	f2	mixed coniferous forest
				Warm and dry monadnocks with the best insolation	f3	dry-ground forest, beech forest
Source: Maciejowski 2007 (modified)

The largest number of microclimatic units, 11 types, were distinguished in the valley type of mesoclimate (I). The microclimatic types a₁, a₂ and b₁ comprise the majority of the area of the Krzeszowice Trough and cover the largest area comparing to other microclimatic units. Karst valleys in the Olkusz Upland are particularly differentiated in terms of microclimatic conditions. Due to large number of convex and concave land forms in a relatively small area, eight types of microclimate were distinguished (c₁-c₈). In the slope type of mesoclimate (II), six types of microclimate were defined, depending on sunshine duration and snow cover duration. Three types of microclimate were found both in the sub-type of the warm slopes (types d₁-d₃) and in the sub-type of the cold slopes (e₁-e₃). The highest parts of the Olkusz Upland and the Tenczyn Ridge, belonging to the ridge top type (III), are characterised by the smallest microclimatic variability. Three types of microclimate (f₁-f₃) were distinguished mainly in relation to the vegetation distribution. The type f₃ can be found only in the northern part of the study area (Table 4).

CONCLUSIONS

The present paper shows various research currents developed within the framework of the meso- and microclimatic studies in the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland. The research focused either on processes controlling the mesoclimatic mosaic of the area (e.g. the intensity of the solar radiation; a genetic approach) or on spatial differentiation of chosen meteorological elements (e.g. air temperature; an outcome approach). A synthetic summary of those studies is the typology of mesoclimatic conditions. On one hand, the presented research is a continuation of the mesoclimatic studies of the uplands and mountains of the southern Poland, developed since 1960s, and on the other hand they are a new approach to that issue. The application of automatic meteorological stations allows simultaneous measurements of high precision in many places which in turn allows construction a model of minimum air temperature diffrentiation in various land forms. It also allows collection of much more extensive microclimatic data bases than in case of traditional, patrol measurements.

The studies of active surface in ONP presented above showed its large diversity concerning radiation balance in the whole spectrum. In an area of a differentiated relief, the inclination and exposure are equally important as the horizon obstruction which causes the decrease of daily sums of incoming solar radiation. It can be observed e.g. in the narrow Prądnik valley but also in concave land forms and hilly fragments of the upland. In late spring and in late autumn, the horizon obstruction plays larger role in the valleys going from north to south than in the valleys going from west to east. At relatively low position of the Sun, early in the morning or in the evening the valleys are shaded which results in the deficit of solar radiation. The deficit of global radiation reached maximum 1.0 MJ·m^-2 for morning hours and 1.6 MJ·m^-2 for afternoon hours for one clear day. It consists 47% and 37%, respectively, of K↓ noted at the ridge top. On average, during the whole day, the valley received more than 2 MJ·m^-2 (42%) energy less than the ridge top. The largest spatial differentiation of K* was caused by the geometry of the active surface, i.e. the inclination, exposure, shading and albedo. The horizon obstruction had a double effect; it caused the limitation of K↓ and absorption of long-wave radiation (both L↓ and L↑) of which a part was then emitted back to the ground.

Like in the case of radiation, the main factor controlling the air temperature in the study area is the relief. The largest temperature differences in the vertical profile are observed during the night when the inversions form often in the valleys due to the gravitational flow of the cold air. Therefore, the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland is differentiated from the micro- and mesoclimatic point of view in a similar extent as the Carpathian Foreland. Such studies for that region are well documented e.g. in the works of Hess [10,12], Niedźwiedź [22], Obrębska-Starklowa [26]. The presented attempts of mesoclimatic map construction are based on the methods elaborated by the climatologists from Cracow [13]. Particular types of meso- and microclimate are distinguished mainly in connection with the relief. The application of J. Paszyński method [29] for that area could give interesting results, but the main difficulty is great spatial variability of the environment's elements which control the heat balance of a certain place. The presented studies prove that the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland is greatly differentiated from meso- and microclimatic point of view which should be taken under consideration in spatial planning for that area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are deeply grateful to Dr. Józef Partyka, the Director of ONP, for providing the meteorological data from the station in Ojców in the Castle Park. Wojciech Maciejowski cordially thanks Prof. Barbara Obrębska-Starklowa for her valuable advice and suggestions obtained during the research campaign in the southern part of the Cracow-Częstochowa Upland.

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Accepted for print: 30.05.2008

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Anita Bokwa
Institute of Geography and Spatial Management,
Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
7 Gronostajowa St., 30-387 Cracow, Poland
Phone: +48126645283
email: anita.bokwa@uj.edu.pl

Zbigniew Caputa
Chair of Climatology,
University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland
60 Będzińska St., 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland
Phone: +48323689592, +48323689604

email: caputa@us.edu.pl

Grzegorz Durło
Chair of Forest Protection and Forest Climatology,
University of Agriculture in Cracow, Poland
29 Listopada Av., No. 46, 31-425 Cracow, Poland
Phone: +48126625142
email: rldurlo@cyf-kr.edu.pl

Wojciech Maciejowski
Institute of Geography and Spatial Management,
Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
7 Gronostajowa St., 30-387 Cracow, Poland
email: w.maciejowski@geo.uj.edu.pl

Jakub Wojkowski
Chair of Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology,
University of Agriculture in Cracow, Poland
24/28 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Cracow, Poland
Phone: +48126624012
email: rmwojkow@cyf-kr.edu.pl

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